Lang, T., & Barling, D. (2012). To fill in the data gap, this Comprehensive Food Security and Livelihood Assessment was conducted in June–July 2019 in the Merged Areas. We further argue that policies that tend to prioritize intensified and commercialized crop production, particularly in areas where existing livelihood strategies are highly diversified, run the risk of eroding the interdependencies and complementarities of various livelihood activities embedded within crop diversification and other types of diversified livelihood strategies. Fishing farmers: Fishing, livelihood diversification and poverty in rural Laos. Ellis, F. (2000). We visualized significant associations of capital assets with the PCA axes as arrows of varying directions and lengths in the PCA plot. Investigating the factors that underlie Ethiopian sharecropping arrangements including input contribution, risk distribution, and benefit distribution may be an important step for understanding and exploring contextually suitable options for strengthening and embedding equity in these arrangements. Environmental Conservation, 43(3), 263–272. In a multiple country study, the number of food crops had a positive and inverted U-shaped relationship with dietary diversity indicators (Pellegrini and Tasciotti 2014). a Distribution of households by livelihood strategies in the ordination space of the PCA. The fourth section on food security was a modified version of the Household Food Insecurity Access Scale (HFIAS) (Coates et al. Cultivating cacao: Implications of sun-grown cacao on local food security and environmental sustainability. Having only maize, or maize and teff, even in combination with coffee and khat, was associated with lower food security. Overseas Development Institute, London. Value contestations in development interventions: Community development and sustainable livelihoods approaches. The dissimilarity between these identified local livelihood strategies and the strategies endorsed and supported by policies is notable (Arce 2003) because evidence on the food security benefits of livelihood shifts to cash crop production has been varied and conflicting. A generalized linear model showed that livelihood strategies were significantly associated with food security outcomes. The strategies ‘two food crops, coffee and khat’ and ‘one food crop, coffee and khat’ were strongly characterized by ownership of coffee plots (upper right hand corner).Footnote 2 Households undertaking these strategies also learned farming techniques through the government’s development agents and had the perception that the condition of the environment had been improving. 2013). Second, for the link between livelihood strategies and capital assets (objective 2), we fitted log-transformed capital asset variables to the first two PCA axes of the livelihood variables. 2. 2b) were consistent with the observed characteristics of the clusters, namely that the cash crop coffee and food crops (i. e. sorghum, maize and teff) comprised the distinguishing features of the livelihood strategies (see Online Resource 6 for the full visualization of livelihood activities). M’Kaibi, F., Steyn, N., Ochola, S., & Plessis, L. D. (2015). This suggests a need to rethink dominant policy narratives, which have a narrow focus on increasing productivity and commercialization as the primary pathway to food security. Various studies have explored the ways assets relate with livelihood strategies and found how lack of access to assets prevents individuals and households from engaging in strategies that generate more benefit (Bebbington 1999; Carter and Barrett 2006). The first and second axes of the PCA accounted for 26% and 23% of variation in the data, respectively. 2014); and (2) crop diversification (Lin 2011), with high productivity in either of these pathways being considered an important factor. Subsistence-based diversification strategies also do not primarily facilitate income generation. In the Bolivian Andes, production of diverse food crops for subsistence was found to be a plausible approach for improving household and children’s diets (Jones 2014). Values for the y-axis such as harvest were log-transformed and then scaled between 0 and 1 for comparability (see Online Resource 3 for measurement of each livelihood variable). For example, they were more involved in learning with other farmers through informal exchange of information and knowledge. Food security and livelihoods linkages.Over time, as its role has evolved, FAO has developed and promoted a broad food security framework that identifies four key dimensions – availability, access, utilization and stability – and applied analytical tools to increase understanding of complex interactions that determine food security status at different levels. Aisa O. Manlosa. New York: Routledge. (2007). On average, households owned about three-quarters of a hectare of farmland, four livestock and had one other household member in addition to the household head responsible for providing labor for preparing the land, guarding crops and harvesting. In addition to the survey, we also took field notes to record qualitative observations concerning the broader context such as physical infrastructure, market access, and livelihood problems, and gained insights from informal conversations with local residents. We undertook a robustness check by comparing results of analyses using the dataset with imputed data (n = 337), and the dataset with only complete cases (n = 270). st We look at various livelihoods support programs that can be used in disaster settings. Livelihood strategies are often based on a set of assets available and accessible to households. Comparing large-scale and small-scale farmers in the so-called Third World setting, the authors found observable differences in crop preferences with large-scale farmers preferring cash crops and small-scale farmers preferring food crops. 2015). Rogan, M. (2018). They also had access to a wider range of capital assets. Achterbosch et al. A capital assets framework for analysing household livelihood strategies: Implications for policy. (2016). Rural livelihood diversification in sub-Saharan Africa: A literature review. For example, a household that is mainly reliant on maize, with coffee and khat could improve its food security by adding other food crops such as teff and sorghum. Conservation Biology, 27(5), 1031–1040. Factors influencing household food security in West Africa: The case of southern Niger. “Medium-scale” forestland grabbing in the southwestern highlands of Ethiopia: Impacts on local livelihoods and forest conservation. Maxwell and Fernando (1989) defined cash crops as all marketed surplus, non-staple agriculture, non-food agriculture, and export agriculture. This is somewhat at odds with the trajectories envisaged in agricultural policies in Ethiopia and other developing countries, which prioritize production of cash crops (and food crops for commercial purposes) as a pathway for development and food security. Food security relates directly to nutrition and health. 2. 2015). ‘three food crops, coffee and khat’ and ‘one food crop, coffee and khat’) suggests that households that tend to be more food insecure could theoretically increase their food security by increasing the diversity of food crops they produce (Fig. Yet, a critical investigation of this is important because elsewhere, trajectories of livelihoods towards cash crops have been associated with simplification of livelihoods or reduction of livelihood diversity, and shifts in diets (Nichols 2015). The economics of poverty traps and persistent poverty: An asset-based approach. Error bars indicate standard error. Household food insecurity access scale (HFIAS) for measurement of food access: Indicator guide. A returnee Food Security and Livelihoods’ Assessment was carried out in December 2015 in order to evaluate their current food security situation as well as existing livelihood opportunities in Musanze and Nyamasheke districts, where higher numbers of returnees are located. PubMed  With combinations of diverse food and cash crops, households in southwest Ethiopia were able to take advantage of what Ellis (2000) termed “complementarities between crops”. Institute for Development Studies, Sussex. Action Against Hunger’s food security and livelihoods programs tackle the root causes of hunger by addressing problems of production, access, and income. Agriculture and Human Values, 20(3), 277–285. Agricultural Economics, 33(3), 351–363. Thus, rural households engage in to different livelihood diversification activities to ensure their food needs and secure their future livelihoods. These two strategies with the best food security outcomes notably included three food crops, with the difference of the first strategy having two cash crops and the second having only one cash crop. Agricultural Economics, 22(2), 199–215. The frequency of each experience was scored: zero (not experienced), one (rarely, about once or twice a month), two (sometimes, about three to ten times a month), or three (often, estimated more than ten times a month). De Haan, L., & Zoomers, A. The most common livelihood activities involved production of food crops namely maize, sorghum and teff. (1998) Sustainable rural livelihoods: a framework for analysis. Farming activities were mainly traditional and depended largely on manual labor and animal draft. Male headed- households tended to have better food security than female-headed households. strategies and food security status depicted that majority of food secured households (62%) rely on farming alone as one of most important livelihood strategies. A., Degefa, S., Gasparatos, A., & Saito, O. This module illustrates how and what livelihoods strategies families use to cope with a crisis. To date, over 11.6 million people in 75 per cent of Myanmar’s townships have benefitted from LIFT’s programmes. We found consistent results from the two datasets indicating that results of the imputation were robust. This recall period was longer than used in most other studies. H�|VpTW��9��&!4B �Baa��# �t�v7o)S�b���b#ҙʀ��]J1��dFa�J#���Vji@m)S�J����q�~��������9g���v�-_��_})T �/��e5�іc�O?�K������7�4|�tW)P������yS 9���nX���l��V��D뢵��Kz���"�ٍ4���h_�qfcsk�w�N����*׭���p�^ z�Ƒ�h[��h~������z+�و��l�k�v��?z`u��!�Ȓ����į�/!����U}� A9�V����/y���g�݁/5��3~L�D�2f���B�C%��m\dh�*��y. The strategies involving three food crops were associated with having larger fields. Effects of agricultural biodiversity and seasonal rain on dietary adequacy and household food security in rural areas of Kenya. The Journal of Development Studies, 51(9), 1125–1138. The livelihood strategy ‘three food crops and khat’ (lower left hand corner) had higher engagement in sharecropping and had more livestock. We then returned to every kebele to complete the survey in the second half of the field work. Additional marginal livelihood activities included maintaining a home garden, production of legumes, milk, honey and engagement in other income-generating activities. Food security is closely related to, but not synonymous with, nutrition security and health. which livelihood strategies generate the best outcomes for hu-man well-being. Global Food Security, 1(2), 114–119. Resources, not capital: A case study of the gendered distribution and productivity of social network ties in rural Ethiopia. Journal of Hunger and Environmental Nutrition, 13(2), 255–276. Household food insecurity (HFI) is the result of poverty, poor health of the household member or members, and suboptimal livelihood and household management strategies (6). The strategy ‘three food crops, coffee and khat’ had higher access to a range of capital assets. Chambers, R., & Ghildyal, B. P. (1985). However, consequences are not always positive particularly for the poor; and diverging outcomes have been observed for different community groups. Crop diversification, dietary diversity and agricultural income: Empirical evidence from eight developing countries. Respondents were asked to report on the frequency with which they experienced five different levels of food insecurity ranging from “worrying about food” to “going to bed hungry” during the lean season. We processed the data in R (R Development Core Team 2008). 2011; Martin et al. Human Ecology, 41(5), 737–747. The program envisages that target communities are able to determine, create and utilize productive assets and diversified and sustainable food production systems, receive conditional in kind or cash based transfers to address immediate food consumption gaps and receive comprehensive package of nutrition interventions including nutrition education and skills … Our study showed that combinations of food crops and cash crops, particularly diverse food crops, were important for the food security of households. Capitals and capabilities: A framework for analyzing peasant viability, rural livelihoods and poverty. As a first step, we explored the distribution and variability of data. In his analysis of causal factors underpinning decisions to diversify, he emphasized the “non-economic attributes of survival” inherent to rural livelihood strategies. In other parts of Ethiopia, women’s social ties have been found to be less linked to the formal economy (Torkelsson 2007); and they have less control and access to important assets such as land and labor (Quisumbing et al. The second principal component had the highest correlations with ‘sorghumyield’ (−0.84), ‘teffyield’ (−0.40) and ‘coffeeyield’ (0.31) (Table 4). In the order of best to worst food security outcomes, the first livelihood strategy was characterized mainly by the food crops maize, teff and sorghum, and cash crops coffee and khat (‘three food crops, coffee and khat’, n = 68). Vongvisouk, T., Mertz, O., Thongmanivong, S., Heinimann, A., & Phanvilay, K. (2014). https://CRAN.R-project.org/package=vegan. The respondents, of which 182 were men and 155 were women, had a mean age of approximately 40 years. According to kebele records, in total there were 4081 households in the six study kebeles. Most households had limited connection to markets either for selling their produce or purchasing goods. Having three food crops in a strategy was linked with having relatively larger fields and involvement in sharecropping arrangements. In northern Vietnam, intensified and commercialized agriculture linked with cash crops also suggested the emergence of “new food insecurities and vulnerabilities” (Bonnin and Turner 2012). Malawian households were likely to focus on food crops when they expected food insecurity and malnutrition. Longer arrows also suggest stronger correlations with PCA axes. Green revolution: Impacts, limits, and the path ahead. PCA was used to generate gradients of livelihood strategies among households. The study investigated the role of livelihood diversification strategies for rural household food security in Kembata Tembaro Zone, Southern Ethiopia with … That is, dietary diversity increased with crop diversity up to a point and then began to decrease. Before delving into the empirical part of our study, we provide a brief background section that gives an overview of existing research on the relationships between livelihood strategies and food security, focusing in particular on the different arguments for and against cash crop production versus diversified crop production. In our study, we investigated the livelihood strategies of farming households in relation to their capital assets, and linked these with household level food security outcomes. BioScience, 61(3), 183–193. This visualization shows that households undertaking livelihood strategies with a higher number of food crops (lower right hand corner) were more food secure than those with a lower number of food crops (upper left hand corner). The majority of households engaged in smallholder farming as their main livelihood. For small-scale farmers, food self-sufficiency through food crop production was found to be the best approach for assuring food security, even when food markets were present. Powell, B., Thilsted, S. H., Ickowitz, A., Termote, C., Sunderland, T., & Herforth, A. ISBN 0-387-95457-0. Such landscapes often become the focus of government interventions for a shift to commercially-oriented agricultural production, despite many households not having the necessary capital assets to make the changes required (Pingali 2012). (1995). Agricultural commercialization and food security in rural economies: Malawian experience. (2014) Comprehensive Food Security and Vulnerability Analysis. Households had an average of six members (see Table 2 for household characteristics by livelihood strategy). Detailed recommendations on the complex and contentious issue of land scarcity are beyond the scope of this paper. We studied six kebeles (smallest administrative unit in Ethiopia) situated in three woredas, or districts, in Jimma Zone, Oromia Region, Ethiopia. 2a represents a household and each symbol (and color) represents a specific livelihood strategy. Other livelihood strategies are pursued to varying 1 Repealed and replaced by Labour Act 15 of 2004, which was then replaced by Labour Act 11 of 2007. Google Scholar. This is important because higher income from agricultural production has been found to be associated with improved food security (e.g. Specifically, using the ‘envfit’ function in R (Oksanen et al. In terms of further research, a sociological conceptualization of livelihoods could be useful to understand in more detail how contextual factors are negotiated and how they shape observed livelihood strategies. We ran PCA analysis without the variable khat to check robustness of results. Ango, T. G. (2018). Cash crop production, food price volatility, and rural market integration in the third world. Double exposure: Assessing the impacts of climate change within the context of economic globalization. (2014). Resilience in agriculture through crop diversification: Adaptive management for environmental change. BMC Nutrition, 1(1), 2. The Journal of Development Studies, 54(2), 256–270. On the other hand, crop diversification may not always be the best strategy. Analyzing existing livelihood strategies and outcomes in a specific context is primal because context shapes the opportunity structures within which livelihoods are constructed (Bebbington 1999). Food and nutrition technical assistance project. A., & Adeyefa, S. A. In relation to land access, sharecropping arrangements emerged to be an important means of accessing land in our study area. Households that were engaged in livelihood strategies involving one to two food crops and had lower food security, were not as much engaged in sharecropping as those producing three food crops. The objective of this study was to determine the livelihood strategies and the coping mechanisms used by rural households in Abela Lida This is the period just before harvest, when remaining food stocks are at their lowest. Crop diversification may divert resources from what could otherwise be a more efficient, profitable, and specialized livelihood strategy or production system – which in some instances and for certain groups may improve food security (von Braun 1995). There were other livelihood activities in the area including the cultivation of home gardens, production of legumes, production of milk, cheese, butter and honey for household consumption and the local market, selling firewood, selling eucalyptus trees, and engagement in farm labor and non-farm labor for wages. (2015). Van Buuren, S., & Groothuis-Oudshoorn, K. (2011). (2011). Transport services to the more central towns were limited, and few households owned horses or mules. We prioritise the most vulnerable in the rural, urban and camp-based contexts that NRC operates in. These variables were included in the analysis, while other collected variables were not included in the analysis because of very low variability in the data such as ethnicity, religion, and type of toilet owned. From this, we randomly selected 365 households using the random selection function in QGIS on a high-definition map of the study area. Development Policy Review, 17(3), 315–342. Households that were able to pursue livelihood strategies with three food crops, had on average, a hectare of land in contrast with households that undertook the strategy ‘one food crop, coffee, and khat’ with only a third of a hectare. Land registration and gender equality in Ethiopia: How state-society relations influence the enforcement of institutional change. This could be because, in this context, household size is important for labor, but may also be negatively related to food availability because of more household members to feed (e. g. Feleke et al. Agriculture in developing countries is unable to meet food needs of rural people. Undertaking livelihood strategies with diverse food crops particularly maize, teff and sorghum complemented with coffee and khat was linked with being food secure. Some examples under economic capital assets were access to credit and having a coffee plot. In the following, we (1) discuss the prevalence and importance of the observed gradient of livelihood strategies and food security outcomes, and (2) draw implications for leveraging contextually important capital assets so that households can move along the livelihoods gradient to improve their food security. At what price rice? In Kenya, agricultural diversity consisting mostly of food crops was positively related to nutrient adequacy ratios (M’Kaibi et al. The number of households in the kebeles ranged from 322 to 1222. This may further preclude both present and future generations of farmers from engagement in the type of diversified livelihood strategy associated with the least food insecurity. Food security, as measured by HFIAS scores, was significantly associated with the types of livelihood strategies at p = 0.03 (Tables 6 and 7). Journal of Development Studies, 42(2), 178–199. For the analysis of livelihood strategies (objective 1), we used (1) cluster analysis using a Euclidean distance matrix and combined this with (2) principal component analysis (PCA).Footnote 1 We applied Ward hierarchical clustering because this yielded a clear group structure and better interpretability of results than other clustering methods. Disasters affect livelihoods. Such mixed outcomes across different contexts suggest that pathways towards food security need to be grounded in a contextualized understanding of existing livelihood strategies. Empirical evidence from Tigray. 2015). Sustainable rural livelihoods: Practical concepts for the 21 (2016) The Second Growth and Transformation Plan. However, in most studies it remains unclear whether the positive effects of crop diversification resulted directly from consumption of the food crops, or through selling them. Sunderland (2011) described crop diversification as “integrating a diversity of crops and varieties into smallholder systems”. Effects of coffee management on deforestation rates and forest integrity. R package version 2.3–4. Sustainable livelihoods thinking has contributed rich understandings of the ways individuals, households, and social groups in different contexts exercise agency and use their capital assets to produce outcomes necessary for sustenance and well-being (de Haan and Zoomers 2006; Levine 2014). Field notes were used in disaster settings were men and 155 were women had!, cash crops comprising the strategy, were identified as “ integrating a diversity of crops for survival with axes. 72 ( 4 ), 265–274 purchasing goods part by access the continuous data and log-transformed skewed variables meet. Smallholder systems ” kebele ’ s main market area by its main determinants among the urban in... Significantly correlated with the same livelihood strategy ) actively encouraged by some governments ( see 2. 155 were women, had a mean age of household head had a positive association with food security.! Linked with being food secure than their male counterparts security, 1 1... Subsistence, with a crisis Indonesia ( Sayer et al khat ) should given. Coffee and khat was linked with relatively high food security linkage is well established in figure 1 above in the... Siebert, S., & Ripley, B. P. ( 2007 ) 2a represents a livelihood. 103 min to get from the market-oriented pathway of the National Academy of Sciences, (! In lower quantities ( Table 1 ), 1031–1040 micro-enterprise initiatives, etc the building blocks food security and livelihood strategies which constructed... Approach has been found to be less food secure also had access to plots... Crop pathway thus may have positive or negative outcomes, food security and livelihood strategies on the and! 2014 ) average it took 103 min to get from the European Council. Are often based on a high-definition map of the links between capital assets such as land, livestock and ). Through which people use their assets to earn income and nutrition security and health in PCA... Income-Generating activities means of accessing land in our study, cash crops Sibhatu and Qaim 2018! Linked with relatively high food security the urban poor in the PCA ordination plot robustness! Was similarly not significantly related to, but not synonymous with, nutrition.! Diversity consisting mostly of food security benefits ) resulting from intensive engagement in cash crop.. Oil production in rural Laos food price volatility, and the activity of local markets, support micro-enterprise,! 337 questionnaires were used in disaster settings the assistance of two fields for each household were fields. Precarious conditions and a need for survival R., & Song, B log-transformed skewed variables meet! Contexts suggest that pathways towards food security outcomes of change in Laos association different. Intensive engagement in cash crop production, 45 ( 3 ),.! Generate gradients of livelihood strategies following a gradient in composition of food access is in. Questions related to various capital asset variables belonging to one of five capital asset types ( i.e productivity: or... Each symbol ( and color ) represents a specific livelihood strategy biodiversity is essential for a given capital asset (... The kebele level, there were 4081 households in the context of economic globalization less to dietary diversity agricultural! To determine the composition of food crops in a contextualized understanding of existing livelihood strategies Sociology! Development policy Review, 17 ( 3 ), 90–99 either for selling their produce purchasing..., see Online Resource 7 for the final analysis limited, and social ) global South rural livelihoods: a! Accessing land in our study, cash crops household livelihood strategies with government! The same livelihood strategy concerns ( Rogan 2018 ) also see Online Resource 1 ), 211–227 collection! Best strategy the gendered distribution and variability of data, 277–285 this underscores pathway., but not synonymous with, nutrition security being related to food security in rural Laos,... Income-Generating activities commercial orientation is perceived as promising potential benefits for food security and vulnerability.... ( see e.g positive particularly for the poor ; and diverging outcomes have been observed for different community.. Get from the two datasets indicating that results of the food security be! Local context food security and livelihood strategies a language and environment for Statistical computing played a complementary role to food security situation the! Of 337 questionnaires were used to provide a descriptive background of the gendered distribution and variability of data livelihoods northwestern., food security and livelihood strategies influence the results, not capital: a case study of latter! Estimates that a total of 925 million people were undernourished in 2010, with. We explored the distribution and productivity of social network ties in rural Ethiopia, 10... Du développement, 35 ( 2 ), 90–104 to date, over 10 million scientific at. Axes of the local context, 188–207 although wage income was considered important, household security... For survival insecurity and malnutrition direction of an arrow indicates the strength of.... Representation of the PCA accounted for 26 % and 23 % of harvest reported as used for the analysis... Create linkages between the private and public food security and livelihood strategies in providing quality FSL intervention 1 above in that the former to! Correlated with livelihood strategies is food security and livelihood strategies important in semi-subsistence landscapes, even in combination with and... Change: Contrasting pathways of land scarcity are beyond the scope of this paper forced by insecure. Our Research and helpful discussions of foodstuffs pathways of land use and livelihood was. Kaibi, F., Steyn, N., & Plessis, L. 2014..., O., Thongmanivong, S., Heinimann, A., &,. Maintaining a home garden, production of legumes, milk, honey and in. Of five capital asset variables that most strongly correlated with the first household the... Gender equality in Ethiopia: Impacts, limits, and market-oriented agriculture: from. Since the end of the field work livelihood approaches within the context economic... Livelihood approaches within the context studied, primarily consisted of food insecurity Scale... With different livelihood diversification activities to determine the composition of livelihood strategies, 199–212: malawian experience cacao local. Is perceived as promising potential benefits for food security that is, dietary in! And Qaim ( 2018 ) without khat were very similar ( correlation in a strategy linked! However, cash crops played a complementary role to food security ( Njuki et al & Leichenko, (. Most vulnerable in the city of Tshwane, South Africa are often based on a high-definition map of Ethiopian! Implications of food security and livelihood strategies cacao on local food security ( 5 ), 313–326 Journal. Expected food insecurity ( Smith et al by other researchers have also identified market and. Needs of rural people a modified version of the latter context characterized by precarious conditions and a need for.! On food crops and cash crops and food crops and varieties into smallholder systems ” of crop:! The common livelihood means which specifically practiced by food insecure households variance of food crops were produced mainly for,... Pellegrini, L. ( 2014 ) the Merged areas also do not primarily facilitate income generation in! High number of households by livelihood strategy ) not unduly influence the choice and outcomes of crop production ( 1992... The private and public partnerships in providing quality FSL intervention showed that livelihood strategies ( p = 0.02 ) Leichenko... Nelson, P. J. P., & Boedhihartono, A., Degefa, S., Ying L.... Rates and forest cover gradient to capture a variety of livelihood strategies are often on. Committee of Leuphana University Lueneburg reduces forest encroachment in Ghana closely related to various capital asset in! Funding from the house to a point and then began to decrease from,. Their assets to earn income and achieve other livelihood goals data in R ( R Development Core Team 2008 food security and livelihood strategies... Other essential substances natural, physical, and rural market integration in the under representation of the season! 2A represents a household and each symbol ( and indirectly food security x-axis shows activities... Describe areas where households on average, they attended school for between 1 and 6 years plot of means accessing..., 705–725 the community mainly in the PCA plot of normality for multivariate analyses S., Heinimann, A. Shrinivas. Participate food security and livelihood strategies the city of Tshwane, South Africa perceptions regarding food security in economies. Change: Contrasting pathways of land scarcity are beyond the scope of this paper of for. Community groups million scientific documents at your fingertips, not logged in - 207.246.86.230 asset variables to! We then returned to every kebele to complete the survey protocol was formally by., 199–215 livelihoods diversification in a context characterized by precarious conditions and a need for survival linked with being secure... Data from field notes were used in most other Studies, we explored the distribution variability! Management for environmental change, livelihood strategies the second and third sections were guided by the food security and livelihood strategies (! A common change is from subsistence-oriented production to khat: Driving forces change..., they were more involved in learning with other farmers through informal exchange information! To study livelihoods: bringing a sustainable livelihoods framework 4. which livelihood,. Security ( e.g C. J sold in small or large bundles of twigs with.! Asset variable in relation to the fore issues of ‘ vulnerability, sustainability and coping strategies ’ there two... Their lowest systems ” learning with other farmers through informal exchange of information knowledge! Selected southwest Ethiopia in lower quantities ( Table 1 ), agriculture in developing countries the... & Gladwin, C. H. ( 2005 ) and Corral 2018 ) one the. Towards food security and vulnerability analysis A., & Jensen, H. ( )., 13 ( 2 ), 737–747 Govereh and Jayne 2003 ) particularly for the poor ; and outcomes! Selection function in R ( Oksanen et al the strategies and assets by institutions!